Confucianism
Note: Because many Eastern religions are not familiar to Westerners (the likely readers of this blog), this summary is longer than the pages describing common Western religions.
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. It is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life. Confucianism developed from the Hundred Schools of Thought representing the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE). Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (2070–1600 BCE), Shang (1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (1046–771 BCE).
With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, the core of Confucianism is humanistic. Confucianism is a philosophical system which regards the secular as sacred. Confucianism considers the ordinary activities of human life and especially human relationships as a manifestation of the sacred because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (xìng 性), which is anchored in Heaven Tiān is primarily an impersonal principle similar to the Taoist term Dào (道) or Buddhist Brahman. Confucianism represents the practical order that is given by a worldly awareness of the Tiān.
Tiān (天), a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmination of the skies and stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is not possible to give one translation in Western thought.
Confucianism is the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organized world. Basic Confucian ethical concepts reflect the human being manifested as compassion, righteousness and the moral disposition to do good.
Lǐ (礼; 禮) is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with the law of Heaven. Zhì (智) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold these cardinal moral values.
Li is variously translated as "rite" or "reason," "ratio" when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realization in the context of human social behavior it has also been translated as "customs", "measures" and "rules", among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li. Governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern.
Confucius is credited with creation of the Five Classics, the basic texts of Confucianism. These are:
I Ching or Classic of Change or Book of Changes, a concept which combines divinatory art with numerological technique and ethical insight; philosophy of change sees cosmos as interaction between the two energies yin and yang; universe always shows organismic unity and dynamism.
Classic of Poetry or Book of Songs is the earliest anthology of Chinese poems and songs. It shows the poetic vision in the belief that poetry and music convey common human feelings and mutual responsiveness.
Book of Documents or Book of History, a compilation of speeches of major figures and records of events in ancient times embodies the political vision and addresses the kingly way in terms of the ethical foundation for humane government. These documents established a political culture which was based on responsibility and trust, a covenant of social harmony which did not depend on punishment or coercion.
Book of Rites describes the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty. This social vision defined society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relations but as a community of trust based on social responsibility. The four functional occupations are cooperative (farmer, scholar, artisan, merchant).
Spring and Autumn Annals chronicles the period (771–476 BCE) from the perspective of Confucius's home state of Lu. These events emphasise the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification, for reanimating the old is the best way to attain the new.
Confucianism aims to unify the individual and the God of Heaven (Tiān), the relationship between humanity and Heaven. Heaven (Lǐ or Dào) represents the orderliness of creation and the source of divine authority. Individuals may realize their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious community. Confucianism is sometimes considered a civil religion in contemporary China, defined in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven, Earth, the sovereign or the government, ancestors, and masters.
Heaven is not a defined essence, but rather, the universe orchestrating itself by organizing the polarity of yin and yang, interconnected but continuously opposing forces, a continuous ordering; in Western science, this interconnected but opposing force is described by the term entropy, a measure of disorderliness of a system. Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped. Confucianism is about finding the middle ways between yin and yang, finding self-cultivation and world redemption.
To Confucius, Tian gave him life, and Tian watched and judged. A person may know the movements of the Tian, and this provides a sense of having a special place in the universe. However, Tian may not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world”. Tian may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu tradition.
Regarding personal gods (shén, energies that emanate from and reproduce the Tian) enliving nature, Confucius says that it is appropriate for people to worship them though through proper rites, implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius, answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family, says that in order to appropriately pray to gods one should first know and respect Heaven. Religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person or it is the same as not having sacrificed at all. Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self.
Heaven preserves the world, but has to be followed by humanity finding the middle way between yin and yang forces in each new experience. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors.
Humaneness (Rén) is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which man may act according to the principle of Heaven (天理, Tiān lǐ) and become one with it.
Confucius's described the rules of rén with the statements "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper”, a person "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others”, "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself,” and "rén is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it."
Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right," but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty).:
Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture; a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. Filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support. The wife in filial piety must obey her husband and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly, display courtesy. Male heirs must uphold fraternity among brothers, wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness. Blindly following the parents' wishes is not correct; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death.
Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. Duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return.
The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders isn't stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals. [41]
In Confucianism, the sage or wise person is the ideal personality. However it is very hard to become a sage. Confucius created the model of junzi (gentleman) which may be achieved by any individual. Junzi is considered second only to the sage. There are many characteristics of the junzi: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. The junzi disciplines himself, ren is fundamental to become a junzi. The junzi enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the junzi being a beacon of filial piety.
A key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself according to the universal order. Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional. Submission to authority (tsun wang) was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular benevolence. Confucianism has always recognized the right of revolution against tyranny.
Eastern cultures strongly influenced by Confucianism include China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people, such as Singapore.
How do Taoism and Confucianism relate? Taoism is about rules for the life of an individual, whereas Confucianism concerns the whole society. Confucianism and Taoism represent different ways of thinking and implementing behavioral codes.
Taoism emphasizes belief in nature and dealing with life in a natural manner, Confucianism is based on human conduct as opposed to religion and belief in God.
Taoism focuses on nature; Confucianism is focused on improving society.
The goal of Taoism is to have a balanced life; that of Confucianism is to create harmony in the society.
Taoism holds women as respected members of society; Confucianism takes women to be inferior to men.
