Taoism
Note: Because many Eastern religions are not familiar to Westerners (the likely readers of the blog), this summary is longer than the pages describing common Western religions.
Taoism (pronounced and also spelled Daoism) refers to a philosophy and a religious tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, the source and essence of everything that exists. The Chinese word Tao (or Dao) is usually translated as way, path or “principle”; this usage takes its meaning from reality or nature, which the word Tao can also mean. The proper path in life, says Taoism, is one that works in harmony with reality, the essence of the natural universe.
The keystone work of literature in Taoist philosophy is the Tao Te Ching, a concise book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (the Old Teacher), in ancient China. A number of widespread beliefs and practices that pre-dated the writing of the Tao Te Ching were also incorporated into religious Taoism. The philosophy and the religious rituals profoundly influenced the culture of China and surrounding societies in Asia. Philosophical Taoism, individualistic by nature, is not institutionalized. Religious Taoism has been institutionalized for centuries and has been influenced by a variety of cultures and traditions. Today the philosophy exercises a profound influence on modern thought worldwide: the Tao Te Ching is, after the Bible, the book most often translated into English.
Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the universe and its source is the intended result of Taoist practices.
Religious Taoism (Dàoshi) traditionally features reverence for ancestors and immortals along with a variety of divination practices. Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, Zen Buddhism, several Chinese martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.
Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism. Taoism may be better understood as a way of life than as a religion.
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368-1644 CE). Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association). Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.
Taoist beliefs relate to the symbology of the Tai Chi, or Yin Yang symbol, and the notion of wu-wei (action through inaction), which seek to balance yin and yang at every opportunity. Generally speaking, Taoists believe in embodiment and pragmatism, engaging practice to actualize the natural order within themselves. Also, they believe that life should be peaceful and filled with joy.
Taoist theology emphasizes naturalness, vitality, peace, "non-action" (wu wei, or "effortless effort"—see below), emptiness (refinement), detachment, flexibility, receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior.
Tao literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line. Tao means a system of morality to Confucianists, but that it means the natural, eternal, spontaneous, indescribable way things began and pursued their course to Taoists. Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De (power; virtue; integrity). De is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way". (De is also spelled 'Teh' or 'Te' in some transliteration schemes.)
Wu wei is a central concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, and wu is the negation that means "there is no . . ." or "lacking, without". Thus the literal meaning of wu wei is without conscious or purposeful action. it is often expressed by the paradox action without action, or effortless doing. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential, the innate in-action of the way. Wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference is to be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.
Pu is a metaphor for the state of wu wei and the principle of jian. It represents a passive state of receptiveness. Pu is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion. Pu is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao. It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences. In the state of pu, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.
Taoists believe that a person is a microcosm of the universe. The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons. Akin to the Hermetic maxim of "as above, so below", Taoism posits that people may gain knowledge of the universe by understanding themselves. Various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical and mental health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to improve health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical immortality.
Traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China. According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as Guan Yu, the god of honor and piety. The particular deities worshipped vary according to geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant.
The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels are compassion, moderation, and humility. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity (or the absence of excess). Three Treasures are abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment, absolute simplicity of living, and refusal to assert active authority.
In the Taoist view of sexuality the body is viewed as a positive asset, and mind and body are not set in contrast or opposition with each other. Sex is treated as a vital component to romantic love; however, Taoism emphasizes the need for self-control and moderation. In Taoism, sex can be encouraged; however, only where natural (not rough or forced in any way). Complete abstinence is frequently treated as equally dangerous as excessive sexual indulgence. Taoists believe that a man may increase and nourish his own vitality by bringing a woman to orgasm. The female's orgasm activates and strengthens her jing, which has a nourishing and balancing effect on that of the male. The energy released during either one's orgasm can be harnessed and led up the Governor vessel/channel to nourish the brain, for additional benefit to the longevity of that partner.
The Tao Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely regarded to be the most influential Taoist text. The title means "The Classic of the Way and Its Power or Virtue". Taoists consider the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching as defining: meaning the map is not the territory. Tao literally means path or way and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path". The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation.
The leading themes of Tao Te Ching revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. The Zhuangzi contains prose, poetry, humour and disputation. The book often is seen as complex and paradoxical as the arguments and subjects of discussion are not those common to classical Western philosophy, such as the doctrine of name rectification and correctly making "this/not-this" distinctions. Confucius is among the characters in the Zhuangzi's.
The Daozang, Treasury of Tao, is referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming Dynasty. Daoshi (Dàoshi) generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.
The number of people practicing Chinese religions is estimated to be just under four hundred million. Most Chinese people have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Estimates for the number of Taoists worldwide range from twenty million and possibly to as many as 400 million in China alone. Taoism flourishes most in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Common practices such as street parades take place on particular holidays. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets. Fortune-telling, including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination, has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship, martial arts, is also widely encountered; distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji, T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang, Wing Chun, Won Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and Xing Yi Quan) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing. Many Taoists also participate in the study, analysis and writing of books. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation.
The Taijitu (yin and yang - 太極圖) and the Ba gua (八卦) are symbols associated with Taoism. These symbols may also be called Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes.
Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc. A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel). Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenix made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.
The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared between Taoism and Confucianism. Some scholars believe the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism. Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rituals and order, in favor of the examples of "wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance.
